It is no surprise that the diversity of Africa’s most southerly republic should boast a wealth of South African jazz greats. With its melting pot of native, European, Asian and Malay influences, South Africa has been a musical innovator for decades. Yet, with its origins in the transatlantic slave communities, jazz has a dark and complex past. The Afro-American music stars of the early 20th century would inspire a uniquely South African jazz blend; marabi would be a pivot point in its evolution. This soaring blend of harmonies and rhythms would lift black Africans from their township poverty. Yet jazz’s anarchic rhythm and crowd-pleasing style would be seen as subversive during the apartheid years. As the people partied the censors clamped down, closing music venues and banning live events. Many South African jazz stars would be forced to exile abroad for their safety. Yet fortunately, the spirit of South African jazz would not be quelled. Miraculously, some of the biggest male and female pioneers would flourish in and beyond apartheid. This article pinpoints key moments in the story of the genre, whilst profiling five South African jazz greats who demand our attention.
The slave origins of South African jazz
There is a dark, transatlantic truth to the origins of South African jazz that needs to be told. For it was African slaves trafficked to America that brought traditional rhythms and songs that would fuse with European sounds to create jazz music.
With the roots of African-American music steeped in the hardship of slavery, we begin to understand the power of song to escape. Over centuries, Africans torn from their homelands would sing to lighten their days. This musical urge would lead to the birth of the spiritual, blues, ragtime and jazz.
The growth of Afro-American jazz
The explosion of Afro-American music into the popular mainstream started with late 19th century groups like the Fisk Jubilee Singers. Yet it was the turn of the 20th century that would mark a new dawn in Afro-American music. It was ragtime man Scott Joplin and rising stars such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Bessie Smith and Ella Fitzgerald who would bring Afro-American jazz instrumentation and vocals to the attention of the world. Ralph Peer, of the legendary Okeh Records, would take Afro-American jazz global to South Africa and beyond.
The jazz buzz hits South African townships
By the early 1930s, jazz was creeping into South Africa’s townships and slum yards; Johannesburg was where it was at. Early bands like the Jazz Maniac were sending crowds wild with their native fusion – marabi. This raw South African style paired Afro-American jazz melody with traditional African harmony. It would fast become the soundtrack of the township, offering a release from the poverty and grind. With a mix of improvised notes and jazz undertones, this music craze kept township folk drinking and dancing to the early hours. South African jazz pioneer, Wilson ‘King Force’ Silgee, summed up the spirit of marabi:
‘It was either organ but mostly piano. You get there, you pay your 10 cents. You get your share of whatever concoction there is – and you dance. It used to start from Friday night right through to Sunday evening.’
Yet marabi and the black South African jazz scene was loathed by the powers that be. Subsequently, music from this time was rarely recorded for fear of a backlash. Notwithstanding, the growth of radio, along with a demand for this new South African jazz, would force greater publicity.
The Afro-American jazz and swing influence
Moving into the 1940s and 1950s, the gramophone brought more Afro-American jazz to the township. Black South African musicians were wowed by the soaring sounds of pioneers like Armstrong, Basie and Ellington. Also, American swing started to inspire local bands and hybrid sounds. Groups such as The Synco Fans, The Pitch Black Follies and The Merry Blackbirds showcased stunning female vocalists like Dolly Rathebe and Miriam Makeba. Soon after, tsaba-tsaba, a dance music craze, sent the working classes of Johannesburg and Sophiatown wild. Eventually, this would morph into the penny whistle-influenced kwela and later phata-phata, bringing new joy to world-weary, township Africans. Later, musicians would layer traditional jazz instruments with the township whistle to create mbaqanga. It was a magical moment in South African music, yet its spirit was soon to be tamed.
Government censorship and musical resistance
As South African jazz lifted black Africans up the National Party government started to clamp down. The wilful demolition of Sophiatown and harsh segregation laws of the 1950s sent a warning to black South Africans. The state did not stop at the destruction of townships, they also closed venues, curbed gatherings and racial mixing. However strongly black South Africa fought back, these restrictions would mark a dark era of violence and censorship. In 1960 the Sharpeville Massacre would be a tipping point, leading to the exile of many South African Jazz musicians abroad.
As stars like Masekela, Makeba, Ibrahim and more were forced to flee, remaining musicians and locals attempted to resist this cultural suppression. Yet the rise of state-controlled radio would see the clamps of censorship tighten through the 1960s until the 1990s.
Despite this turbulence, the spirit of South African jazz would not die. Music would head underground, as the country’s jazz pioneers bided their time before returning home. Read on for a fascinating snapshot of some of the great male and female pioneers of South African jazz.
Hugh Masekela (4 April 1939 – 23 January 2018)
Township-born Masekela grew up in Witbank, in a family where social justice mattered. His early experiences of hardship were to mould him as a musician and activist. Over a 60-year career, he would earn the tag of the ‘father of South African jazz,’ winning global awards and acclaim. An accomplished trumpeter, composer and singer, he started out in 1956 with the renowned Jazz Epistles, playing alongside Abdullah Ibrahim and other talents. The native jazz genre of mbaqanga was a key influence on his soaring, jazz trumpet style. In 1960, he fled South Africa for London, studying at the Guildhall School of Music. Later he would relocate to New York, developing his music in exile until the 1990s. Throughout his life, he was driven to write music that spoke up for socio-political change. Some of his most notable songs include ‘Grazing in the Grass,’ ‘Stimela’ and ‘Soweto Blues.’
Abdullah Ibrahim (9 October 1934 – present)
Cape Town-born Ibrahim was originally named Adolph Johannes Brand (or stage name, Gold Brand). Raised in the culturally diverse, port area of the city, his early influences were black African and Afro-American genres including marabi, gospel, swing and jazz. As an innovative pianist and composer of the Cape Jazz mould, his Afro-American jazz influences were Thelonius Monk and Duke Ellington. He developed a poignant, lyrical piano style that evoked the ups and downs of life. In protest of the apartheid regime, he self-exiled in New York from the 1960s to the 1990s. Here, he made a home and family with partner and jazz singer Sathima Bea Benjamin. His 50-year career has led to high profile collaborations and accolades, billing him as a true South African jazz legend. Yet, his most renowned song remains the anti-apartheid melody, ‘Mannenburg.’
Johannes ‘Spokes’ Mashiyane (20 January 1933 – 9 February 1972)
Vlakfontein-born Mashiyane came from rural roots, caring for his father’s livestock. He would begin to experiment with traditional instruments before a move to Johannesburg would change his future. There as a domestic servant, he was able to buy his first penny whistle. His instinct to experiment would lead him to develop his trademark, looping sound. He was discovered street-busking by the music scout Strike Vilakazi, a chance meeting that would launch him onto South Africa’s 1950s jazz scene. His early jamming with the Alexandra Boys would make him a household name and his recordings with Gallo records would reap rewards. Over his 20-year career, he would remain in South Africa, becoming a key figure of the country’s kwela scene. His dynamic style would uplift stages and dance floors everywhere. His talent would catch the attention of jazzmen, such as Claude Williamson and Bud Shanks, opening up a prestigious spot at the Newport Music Festival (1965). Although he would sadly lose his fight to cirrhosis, Mashiyane would always be remembered as the innovator ‘King Kwela.’ Some of his most played whistle tracks are, ‘Ace Blues,’ ‘Kwela Spokes’ and ‘Skokian.’
Dolly Rathebe (2 April 1928 – 16 September 2004)
Randfontein-born Rathebe was raised in the township of Sophiatown. Here, she learnt to sing, surrounded by the music of marabi. In 1948 a Johannesburg talent spotter noticed her star quality at an outdoor event. Later, she would make her film debut in the acclaimed, 1949 British movie Jim Comes To Jo’burg. On top of acting, she gained notoriety for her appearances on Alf Herbert’s African Jazz and Variety show. Her jazz pedigree bloomed when she sang with the Elite Swingsters (1964). She developed a mellow, jazz style, reminiscent of American music queens like Smith and Fitzgerald. Yet apartheid would deliver her a double blow – the destruction of Sophiatown and curfew limits on her ability to perform. Unlike some of her peers, she would stay in Cape Town, defiantly running a shabeen club. Rathebe would reunite with the Elite Swingsters in the late 1980s and begin to record again. Before her death, she would receive accolades for her musical and community work, including the South African Order of Ikhamanga for her contribution to music and the ideals of social justice.
Miriam Makeba (4 March 1932 – 9 November 2008)
Miriam Makeba, fondly named ‘Mama Africa,’ was a multi-talented vocalist, songwriter, actress and activist. A tough upbringing forced her out to work early. Singing came to her naturally and she was heavily influenced by the mbube style, melding Afro-American jazz, ragtime and church music. She began to perform in the 1950s with bands like the Manhattan Brothers and the all-female Skylarks. She stood out as a musical force and the release of Pata Pata (1967) catapulted her to international fame. A big critic of the apartheid regime, she was forced to flee in the 1960s. However, over the next thirty years, her voice would not be silenced, leading to a music ban in South Africa. Over the years, her music would span the genres of jazz, world music, Afro-pop and more. She became famed as a South African musical trailblazer, collaborating with many international jazz stars including (former husband) Hugh Masekela, Harry Belafonte, Nina Simone and more.
South African jazz is a shining example of the resilience of music. It was born out of slavery, revisioned in America and reframed for an African audience. It’s diverse nature as a genre, its fusion of native and global influences, makes it one of the musical marvels of all time. In many ways, it is a soundtrack of survival. It sprang anew, during the dark days of apartheid and became a rallying cry for freedom of expression at home and abroad. The huge diversity and talent of its stars is humbling and ever-evolving as 21 st century jazz men and women continue to raise the bar. We can be safe in the knowledge that South African jazz shall keep riffing and soaring – bringing joy to hearts and minds everywhere.
